Individuals experiencing homelessness and reentry after incarceration repeatedly encounter barriers that have little to do with motivation or ability, and everything to do with digital access. Tasks many people consider routine are major obstacles for those who lack stable internet access, consistent phone service, or familiarity with digital systems. As employment, housing, and public services continue moving online, these barriers increasingly shape access to stability and opportunity.
These experiences reflect a broader issue commonly referred to as the digital divide: disparities in access to technology, internet connectivity, and digital literacy across economic, social, educational, and geographic backgrounds. This divide shapes how people access modern systems such as employment, housing, and public services.
As of 2024, California had a homeless population of 187,084 people. Roughly 1 in 5 became homeless after leaving institutions such as jails or prisons, and a 2018 California policy brief estimated that approximately 70% of unsheltered individuals experiencing homelessness reported a history of incarceration. Criminal justice involvement is both a cause and consequence of homelessness, as criminal records can significantly limit access to employment, education, and housing. Additionally, due to the criminalization of homelessness, poverty, and addiction, many individuals experiencing homelessness cycle through jails repeatedly, further contributing to long-term instability.
These structural conditions become especially visible in day-to-day interactions with digital systems. Many digital skills are learned through repeated exposure rather than formal instruction. This means that tasks often assumed to be intuitive, such as password recovery or uploading files, frequently require repeated direct instruction, practice, and stable internet access. These barriers reflected unequal access to technology and opportunities to learn digital systems.
Accessing technology involves more than purchasing a device; phone plans, chargers, and reliable internet access also carry ongoing costs. For individuals experiencing homelessness, even basic access to electricity to charge devices is not always available. Phones may die overnight due to a lack of charging access causing individuals to miss morning appointments or time-sensitive communications.
Some programs, such as LifeLine, provide low-cost phones to eligible individuals. However, obtaining the documentation required for these programs can be difficult, and the devices often provide limited functionality and data access.
As a result, programs intended to close the digital divide often remain inaccessible to many individuals experiencing instability. Limited access to devices and connectivity can restrict employment opportunities, communication, and access to essential services. Many shelters require phone calls to join waitlists, and missing a call may result in the loss of a placement opportunity. Frequently, individuals miss important calls because their phones are disconnected, out of battery, or temporarily inaccessible.
This is especially clear for job seekers, as employment applications have largely shifted online, often requiring a resume, a cover letter, and, in some cases, additional skills assessments submitted digitally. There are several tasks that many employers now assume applicants already know how to do that have little to do with the job itself, such as creating resumes in Google Docs, downloading and uploading files, or creating accounts on online job boards. These systems assume consistent access to devices, internet connectivity, and digital literacy, which many individuals experiencing instability may not have.
Even entry-level roles that require minimal day-to-day use of technology often include online assessments or application portals that must be completed before an interview can take place. For individuals who rely on mobile devices or have unstable internet access, these additional steps can become significant roadblocks to reentry.
These barriers extend beyond job applications into account recovery and digital identity systems. It is common for individuals to get locked out of their email accounts because two-factor authentication codes were tied to disconnected phone numbers or inaccessible devices. In many cases, account recovery systems require access to previous emails, phone numbers, or verification methods that users no longer have, creating verification loops that are difficult to resolve. These systems assume consistent access to phones, email, and verification methods.
Although programs addressing digital access exist, many remain difficult for individuals experiencing instability to access consistently. Regional programs in the area, such as the San Jose Public Library, offer digital skills classes and tech support. The library had a digital check-out program that allowed clients to borrow a laptop or iPad, but it was discontinued in March 2026, after temporary COVID-era funding expired and ongoing maintenance costs could no longer be supported.
Other initiatives, such as San José On, provide devices and digital literacy training to low-income residents in Santa Clara County. However, the enrollment process often mirrors the very barriers it is meant to reduce. Applicants must complete multiple online and in-person verification steps before receiving a device, including uploading documentation, scheduling appointments, and completing digital training modules. For those without stable access, the enrollment process can replicate the very exclusion it is designed to address.
While local organizations provide direct support, broader policy initiatives have also attempted to address digital exclusion. California has attempted to address these gaps through statewide initiatives. One program, the California Digital Equity Plan (CalDEP), focuses on broadband expansion, device access, and digital literacy programs for communities most affected by digital exclusion. However, CalDEP has now been suspended due to the termination of federal funding. Similarly, the California Advanced Services Fund (CASF) provides funding for broadband infrastructure, public internet access, and digital literacy training programs. However, they often do not address instability, documentation barriers, or account recovery issues.